ñRulers in Scotland and Wales struggled to maintain their independence from the kings of England throughout the Middle Ages. ñ
When the Normans conquered England in 1066, the kingdom of the Picts and the Scots that had emerged in Highland Scotland in the 9th century AD had recently extended its authority into the Lowlands. In Wales, Celtic princes ruled in Gwynedd, Powys, Dyfed, and some smaller principalities. The Normans and their successors, the Plantagenets, were often preoccupied with wars in France and paid limited attention to Scotland and Wales. In the late 13th century, however, the aggressive English king Edward I (1239-1307) made a determined effort to control all of Britain. From the time of the conquest, England's Norman rulers controlled most of lowland Wales through Marcher Lords - feudal barons based in the marches, or borders, between the two countries. But the Welsh princes of the mountainous northwest retained their independence. In the early 13th century, they were united under the prince of Gwynned, Llywelyn ap Iorweth (d.1240), who extended his rule over most of Wales. His grandson Llywelyn ap Gruffyd (d.1282) was acknowledged as prince of Wales by King Henry III (1207-72). Proud of his independence, Llywellyn refused to pay homage to Henry's successor, Edward I. Edward used his military might to bring the Welsh ruler to heel. In 1282, Llywellyn was killed in a skirmish with the English, and two years later Wales was absorbed into Edward's realm.
The kingdom of Scotland was an altogether more powerful enemy for the kings of England. From the early 11th century, the Scottish kings ruled an area very similar in extent to modern-day Scotland. In 1072 William the Conqueror (1027-87) forced the Scottish king Malcolm III (c.1031-93) to acknowledge him as overlord, but in practice Scotland remained independent. In the late 13th century, however, a disputed succession to the Scottish throne gave Edward I a chance to interfere in Scottish affairs. In 1296, the English king seized the Scottish throne. The English takeover was resisted first by William Wallace (c.1274-1305) and then by Robert Bruce (1274-1329). The death of Edward I in 1307 and the succession of his less resolute son, Edward II (1284-1327) was probably the crucial factor that allowed the Scottish rulers to re-establish their independence, recognized by England in the Treaty of Edinburgh of 1328. Partly through forming an alliance with England's biggest rival, France, the Scottish kings were able to remain independent until 1603, when King James VI of Scotland (1566-1625) became King James I of England, uniting the two kingdoms. x 2 ⌡⌡⌡
